Social Media And Organizational Psychology At Harvard...

Many teachers, professors, and businesses are using group work thinking it will help reduce the amount of work each person will have to contribute. The truth behind this is that the majority of the work usually gets put on one person entirely. Opinions from other members of the group interfere with the success of the group as well. In recent years, some research has been done on finding out just how much better is group work than solo work. The findings might come as a surprise to you. J. Richard Hackman, the Edgar Pierce Professor of Social Media and Organizational Psychology at Harvard University has ran a few experimental groups to find out the answer. Even though many people will say that group work will bring people together; factors such as group thinking, opinion and larger groups can make for a failing group. Are Opinions Good For Working In Groups? One of the problems with group work is that some of the members may have different views. People believe that with group work there will be more ideas being contributed to the task at hand. The issue with having more people in the group is that they all have different opinions. This factor here can be the cause for conflict throughout the group. According to J. Richard Hackman, the Edgar Pierce Professor of Social and Organizational Psychology at Harvard University, the main problem with group work is coordination and motivation typically chip away at the benefits of collaboration. (Diane). Members from the group willShow MoreRelatedSocial Medi A Big Part Of The Internet Industry1431 Words   |  6 PagesSocial media Improvements have been made in technology causing the number of users on social media to rise every day. The use of social media depicts the relationships between people and how the communication progresses. 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TETLOCK University of California, Berkeley LLOYD TANLU MAX H. BAZERMAN Harvard University A series of financial scandals revealed a key weakness in the American business model: the failure of the U.S. auditing system to deliver true independence. We offer a two-tiered analysis of what went

Effective Interpersonal Relations Effective Communication

Effective Interpersonal Relations Interaction with people in the workplace can be challenging and frustrating. Technology has changed the way we communicate with one another; for instance, email is a preferred method of communication compared to an in person meeting. This way of communication can create problems and tension among employees. One’s perception of the message becomes reality, causing lack of communication and for the message to be lost in translation. It is crucial to develop listening skills in order to be responsible for receiving and sharing accurate information. Interpersonal Communication Experience Autumn Oliveras is a former employee of the Cultural Council of Palm Beach County. She encountered an interpersonal†¦show more content†¦She also used the opportunity to help them strategize the organizational chart to better reflect the need for additional staff. Perhaps, if the executive team would have listen to Ms. Oliveras feedback, they would still have a valuable employee that would have grown with the company. In addition, they would have avoided the expense of having to hire her as an independent contractor. Ms. Oliveras is now is a management position and due to her experience, she is sensitive to the needs of the employees and the organization. She emphasizes on communication with staff and sees the value in having executive team meetings to discuss the priorities and who is responsible for each project. Although her experience was not a pleasant one, she learned and implemented an environment where her team member and Executive Team have open communication in order to share ideas that will benefit and further the mission. Organizational Impact Reflection Lack of communication is detrimental for any organization. In the case of the Palm Beach Cultural Council, the lack of communication among the leadership staff caused a disconnect between employee and management. This caused a negative impact on the organization. There were costs related to training, in addition to lack of coverage. When management assessed the working conditions of Autumn Oliveras, a conclusion was reached. The organization hired three

Knowledge Management

Question: Write an essay onKnowledge Management. Answer: Introduction The study is based upon the social media and its role in multinational corporations. The essay presented here is considering several multinational companies and giving the comfortable in a generalized way. The question still keeps pounding our minds that how does social media helps to enhance knowledge sharing, supporting new innovative ideas, building social capitals and last but not the least solving problem related to aid. The most important factor that needs to be considered by any organization is communication. But it still depends on upon many other aspects such as language, political situations and other conditions that may not be present in many international enterprises. It has been seen for some years now that many of the Multinational companies are showing interest in the social media arena. It's a still a question that remains that how do big companies under-estimated the power of communication tool by which they can reach to their potential customers and keep an eye on d ay to day activities around the globe. The presented document explains how social media is helping multinational corps to deal with various aspects as mentioned in above. 2. Social Media and Knowledge Management Social media is a tool that allows individuals or companies to share information publically with their known once. It is sharing and exchanging information's, ideas and career interests, etc[1]. It is the most influential in today computing world. It keeps us updated on a regular basis providing us that extra bit of information and tells us what exactly has been going around in the world[2]. Whereas Knowledge management is a process of gathering or capturing data, developing them, share it and use it in an organizational knowledge. It is used to reach or achieve the organization objectives by using the gathered knowledge. As far as knowledge management is a concern, yes it does play a critical role for multinational companies because the company performance ultimately depends on upon their existing knowledge[3]. 2.1 Social Media There are many multinational corporations such as IBM, NIKE, etc. are getting to know the importance of social media and contributing significantly to the latest trends in global consumption and production. Multinational companies as mentioned above are creating their straight channel to personalize their branding and operations for their global customers[4]. The company does use various tools to attract much of their potential customer using LinkedIn, Facebook, Twitter, and Google Plus, etc. For an example in Australia KFC keeps sending messages to their customer about its latest recipes such as its Pepsi Max that is being added to the menu which is of zero calorie cola etc. It shows that food brands like KFC are trying to communicate with their potential buyers and customers and to be in the race and give a healthy competition to their rivals by reaching to their local and global customers using the powerful tool of social media[5]. Considering big multinationals companies from other parts of the country then we can review their Twitter account, we can see how they are posting a message to engage with their clients who are so useful for any big multinational corporations. But it is also true that only using the social media tool is not at all about sending messages and trying to communicate with potential leads or customers[6]. The multinational companies need to understand that its just a tool to reach them and using it they can express their words and make their clients feel that whatever they are saying is honest, and their aim is only to provide a better quality product with a better service experience. 2.2 Social Media and Knowledge Sharing Knowledge Sharing and Social Media have a significant relationship. Sharing something is so simple for everyone, but when it comes to sharing the experience in an organization, then things becomes many complicated and complex issues. Knowledge share refers to a single person experience which is turned and presented in such a way, that it can be understood by other individuals in the same organization or this case for any multinational company[7]. It also refers to tasks to help another person with their knowledge and collaborating with them to develop new innovative ideas, solve any issues and implement processes. Another significant feature of social media is to maintain and build relationships. They do provide the strength to get connected with their potential customers and create a healthy business relationship between them and their clients[8]. Social media plays a critical role in any organization whether its big or small. The purpose of it is to build up the business relationship and to find out who their right customers are. So that they customers can directly reach to them through it and can provide the feedback and experience of using their service and products. Social media do strengthen the knowledge sharing. Mainly to stimulate the learning process, there are three significant characteristics of social media Firstly the possibility of individual or person to develop their content, and they can easily share that content with others[9]. The shared content is not imposed on other persons by any means of rules; they are free to pursue their requirement or needs. It means that the knowledge or information the person is sharing is of its own, and it can be expressed by any way they want. The knowledge sharing cannot only be dependent on an individual; it also depends on upon the organizations. Multinational companies those who established that their learning is no longer relate to their multinational corporation challenges must shift their focus to making changes to their multinational corporation culture and structure[10]. The primary object of shifting the focus is to optimize the learning. So the multinational corporation structure and culture needs to be entirely focused on easing the knowledge sharing. Three organizational infrastructures are information technology infrastructure, organizational structure, and culture. Based on the latest survey it has been found that the corporate culture plays a significant role in influencing knowledge sharing. It is vital that the multinational corporations have to be flexible regarding enterprise structure which will help them to encourage and combine knowledge sharing between different departments inside or outside a business[11]. 2.3 Social Media and Building Social Capital Social Capital is a form of cultural capital or economic in which social media the main aspect to be considered and the transactions are marked by cooperation, trust, and reciprocity. It is the most significant and vital concept for the multinational corporations. Because these big companies need to operate outside their comfort zone and had to have a right amount of resources to be in the race with the other competitors in the global market[12]. So either informally or formally then needs to be in a business relationship with the other companies to access the needed resources. The social capital refers to the value of resources and resources both intangible and tangible. It can be split into two types bridging social capital and bonding social capital. Where bridging relates to building the links between the individuals that don't know each other's interest and the bonding refers to building up the strength of the person they are already linked up or connected[13]. The social capital has been embedded like informal networks among the multinational corporation employees or workers. Reciprocity is the key tool for understanding and explaining the social capital functionalities between individuals. Therefore, we can understand that the social media plays a significant role in building up and maintaining the social capital because if its social and technical affordances of social networking sites which enable communicational interaction and reciprocity with a huge network of social connections[14]. The vast networks may include weak ties (friends of friends, acquaintances) that can provide some diverse perspective and new information. Bonding social capital is another dimension of social capital and within an enterprise or multinational company this idea or concept may be related to the feelings of tangible and social support, and it allows evaluating the way in which the social relations might ease the knowledge exchange. It has been observed that social media makes the social capital more real. It has been seen that social media does help in building up the social media. 2.4 Social Media and Supporting Innovation Social Media has been the best tool so far till date that supports various aspects such as presenting a new idea of the company in front of the potential customers using social media platforms. It will give the company an instant feedback about what people think about their new ideas or concept that they are planning to launch or manufacturing[15]. There are few ways in which the multinational companies can involve individuals in developing new services and products. They are: Open Innovation: It will allow the individuals to showcase their inventions and competitive ideas for any multinational company to harness. Crowdsourcing: Asking the individuals to solve a particular problem the company is experiencing either on their own or solving it by making a group. Social media plays a significant role in supporting innovation. The benefits we can have is that the potential customers can point out the issues in the new ideas which the individual or the company is not aware. It decreases the cost of production and improves the product or service outcome, and they become sure with their success because of their early changes and improvements were done. It has been observed by various surveys that 6% companies use social media for innovation, and 50% of them use it for to know the customer demand and other 29% use it for aid in product development. Most of the companies are using social media for their product innovation whereas some companies are still in an initial phase of their projects. However, more than 90% of multinational corporations does use social media for their product or service innovation planned to improve or increase the utilization in the coming days[16]. However, there is a lack of understanding concerning the efficient implementation and possibilities of innovation fostering campaigns in social media. Most of the companies are not familiar with the best estimation and practices possible for financial growth which makes things difficult for them. But there are some success factors by involving social media in innovation such as: Social media strategy. Quantifying engagement. Co-creation methods applications. Openness Culture. 2.5 Social Media and Aiding problem-solving Social Media helps in aided in problem solving. The multinational companies use it to simplify the dealing processes for legal situations. Social media is a tool where it gives various problem solving solutions for a single issue. For example, if any company has posted a post in their business page in social media it will be reviewed in public and will be solved by many numbers of people at once[17]. Moreover, if the company has any queries in mind, they can use the social media tool to ask solutions within the business or share it with free people to get answered to those questions which will help them in developing products and services. Sharing knowledge is also enabled by social media by which the problem solution can be shared with many companies and can have a better and number of suggestions related to that issue. Moreover, there are some downsides of SM (Social Media) in solving problems like the social media can fall into the hands of illegal practices, so the companies need to aware of those online or digital crimes[18]. In multinational corporations, the ex-employees can have the access to the list of customers, and they do know the methodology which will be helpful to them. 2.6 Risks of Social Media Social media does carry some critical risks that need to be addressed by companies. The company needs individuals who can check the company page on day to day basis and update the content of it on a regular timeline. Otherwise, there may be some fake customers or clients who want to perform a post negative feedback on the company page which is not at all genuine, and it can affect the business reputation[19]. Based on the survey made few years back it has been seen that there are some major risk factors in social media, they are: Hacking: This risk refers that your brand name can be taken away by a stranger and they can use it for fraud activities. Malware: The content when downloading from the social media websites or ads may have harmful malwares and can affect the enterprise network. No control on corporate content: Some content is been posted on the company page by mistake and the admin doesnt want it to be seen by customers that can lead to some legal activities. Non-compliance: The Company needs to need careful what they are posting on the wall which may lead to violation of government regulations which may expose the enterprise to legal action. Unrealistic clients expectations: If the company presence is been moved to online then customers might change their view towards that company. 2.7 Benefits of Social Media The main advantages of social media are that they are cost-effective because they provide us a platform where companies do not have to invest much to reach to their potential customers which are plus point for the enterprise[20]. Unlimited access is there for the industry for making the promotion of their products and services. They can reach global customers by using few clicks at their convenient location. It's simple, flexible and user-friendly to use and its measurability and building contacts are high which gives the companies that extra advantage. 3. Recommendations MNCs can easily have their presence globally by using social media as their promotional platform for their products and services. But it is also true that without investing time and effort it will not give them their potential clients. If a company wants to use social media tool for their branding, then they need to ensure that the page has to be attended on a regular basis because if the page is not visited, then there will be some customers who will negative feedback the company page which will create a negative impression on others. Multinational corporations or any organization should consider their resources before they are planning to use social media as their marketing strategy. Once they are into social media, they have to ensure that they pay regular attention to their page and need to communicate frequently with their potential customers who will leave a significant impact on their branding. Conclusion The study concludes that there are many benefits of using social media, but it is also true that there are many risks as well. So the big companies such as IBM, NIKE, ADIDAS, or any other big business need to make sure that they address those benefits and drawbacks before they think of utilizing the power tool of social media. Knowledge Management and Social Media play critical roles in Multinational Corporations by knowledge sharing using social media which is significant for any company to growth, and the employees can utilize that shared knowledge in good practices. Knowledge sharing is also important for the individuals working in the companies so that they can enhance their knowledge which will be helpful to the companies as well. Moreover, social media helps in aiding solution to a problem, and it does help for building up the social capital. The overall study indicates that social media, when used by large enterprises, leads to various aspects as mentioned in the above-documen ted essay. References Chetty, Sylvie, and Cecilia Pahlberg."Networks and social capital." The Routledge Companion to International Entrepreneurship (2014): 117. Dabbagh, Nada, and Anastasia Kitsantas. "Personal Learning Environments, social media, and self-regulated learning: A natural formula for connecting formal and informal learning."The Internet and higher education15, no. 1 (2012): 3-8. Duggan, Maeve, Nicole B. Ellison, Cliff Lampe, Amanda Lenhart, and Mary Madden. "Social media update 2014."Pew Research Center19 (2015). Fuchs, Christian.Social media: A critical introduction. Sage, 2013. Hislop, Donald.Knowledge management in organizations: A critical introduction. Oxford University Press, 2013. Iyer, MK Prasanna. "Best Practices in Social Media for Knowledge Management: With Special Reference to Communities." Product Innovation through Knowledge Management and Social Media Strategies (2015): 1. Jalonen, Harri. "A framework for dealing with fundamental knowledge problems through social media." VINE: The journal of information and knowledge management systems 44, no. 4 (2014): 558-578. Kaur, Prabhjot, Shikha Sharma, Japneet Kaur, and Sanjeev Kumar Sharma."Using Social Media for Employer Branding and Talent Management: An Experiential Study." IUP Journal of Brand Management 12, no. 2 (2015): 7. Klitmller, Anders, and JakobLauring."When global virtual teams share knowledge: Media richness, cultural difference and language commonality." Journal of World Business 48, no. 3 (2013): 398-406. Mkel, Kristiina, and VesaSuutari."The social capital of traditional and self-initiated expatriates."In Talent Management of Self-Initiated Expatriates, pp. 256-277. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2013. Marion, Tucker J., Gloria Barczak, and Erik Jan Hultink. "Do Social Media Tools Impact the Development Phase? An Exploratory Study."Journal of Product Innovation Management 31, no. S1 (2014): 18-29. Michailova, Snejina, and Wu Zhan."Dynamic capabilities and innovation in MNC subsidiaries." Journal of World Business 50, no. 3 (2015): 576-583. Oparaocha, Gospel Onyema. "Towards Building Internal Social Network Architecture that Drives Innovation: A Social Exchange Theory Perspective." Journal of Knowledge Management 20, no. 3 (2016). Panahi, Sirous, SirousPanahi, Jason Watson, Jason Watson, Helen Partridge, and Helen Partridge. "Conceptualising social media support for tacit knowledge sharing: physicians perspectives and experiences." Journal of Knowledge Management 20, no. 2 (2016): 344-363. Peltokorpi, Vesa. "Corporate language proficiency and reverse knowledge transfer in multinational corporations: interactive effects of communication media richness and commitment to headquarters." Journal of International Management 21, no. 1 (2015): 49-62. Peterson, Evan A. "Business Strategies for Managing the Legal Risks of Social Media." Journal of Management and Sustainability 4, no. 3 (2014): 96. Picazo-Vela, Sergio, Isis Gutierrez-Martinez, and Luis Felipe Luna-Reyes. "Understanding risks, benefits, and strategic alternatives of social media applications in the public sector." Government information quarterly 29, no. 4 (2012): 504-511. vanDijk, Arjen, Arjen van Dijk, Paul Hendriks, Paul Hendriks, Ivan Romo-Leroux, and Ivan Romo-Leroux. "Knowledge sharing and social capital in globally distributed execution." Journal of Knowledge Management 20, no. 2 (2016): 327-343. Vuori, Vilma, and JussiOkkonen. "Refining information and knowledge by social media applications: Adding value by insight." Vine 42, no. 1 (2012): 117-128. Zhao, Meng, Seung Ho Park, and Nan Zhou."MNC strategy and social adaptation in emerging markets." Journal of International Business Studies 45, no. 7 (2014): 842-861.

Duties of a Gender Officer free essay sample

JOB DESCRIPTION OF A GENDER OFFICER IN AN ORGANIZATION The Gender Officer is responsible for gender mainstreaming and proactive technical support to the organization. S/he will work with all departments and partners to ensure that gender equity principles are incorporated into all policies and activities. S/he will plan, implement and follow up on gender-related activities and provide support to Counterpart staff, partners and grantees on mainstreaming gender in their programs and activities, including design and implementation of trainings on gender-related topics. Provide support, training and technical assistance to the partners on gender and related topics. * Ensure gender integration in the day-to-day activities * Provide support to all departments specific to gender mainstreaming, with particular emphasis on helping relevant departments analyze program implications for men and women in various communities and ways to address issues. The incumbent should ensure that the gender checklists are used and should be able to work with various departments on revising and revisiting the gender sensitive indicators for improved mainstreaming. * Design and implement trainings for Counterpart and partners staffs on gender related topics and mainstream, including but not limited to gender awareness and integration, humans right program management, gender inclusiveness toward more efficient and effective organizational operation * Develop bi-weekly, monthly and quarterly reports on gender department activities. Participate in gender-related events (meeting, workshops, conferences) and network within the country in-order to stay updated about gender related development * To train, support and coordinate field project teams on all gender related activities. * To develop training and promotional materials in conjunction with the Gender Expert on gender approaches Mainstreaming a gender perspective is the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies or programmes in all areas and at all levels. It is a strategy for making womens as well as mens concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes in all political, economic and societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality. This process is the responsibility of us all, and not just gender experts or isolated units. A Competence Development Programme A competence development programme has been developed which aims to create greater awareness, commitment and capacity for gender mainstreaming division by division within departments / organizations. The competence development programme on gender mainstreaming should assess: †¢ Past and current efforts of each division to bring a gender perspective to their substantive work; †¢ Leading-edge thinking in integrating a gender perspective into the specific area of expertise of each division; †¢Concrete ways each division can respond to the Organizations commitment to gender mainstreaming across all substantive work areas. Through a participatory methodology based on each divisions work areas and specific needs, the Competence Development Programme aims to: †¢ Document what each division has already done to mainstream gender perspectives; †¢Clarify concepts and advance the analysis involved in applying gender perspectives in the substantive areas of the division (the focus will be on identifying how and why gender issues are relevant in both the broad mandate of the division and within specific initiatives); †¢Identify resources (research, organizations and individuals) that could assist the divisions to incorporate gender perspectives; †¢Identify concrete entry points and priorities for future work. THE IMPLICATIONS OF THE PROGRAMME FOR EACH STAFF MEMBER The competence development programme involves three elements at divisional level: 1. A meeting (approximately 1 hour) of the whole division, led by the Director, to introduce the competence development programme objectives, struct ure, expected staff participation and anticipated outcomes and present basic concepts. The facilitators are also introduced at this meeting. The meeting provides an opportunity for the senior management to show commitment to gender mainstreaming and the competence development programme and for staff to raise concerns and provide concrete suggestions on the development of the programme. 2. Small-group meetings (2-3 hours) with the facilitators to discuss the work of the division (priorities, past work on gender equality issues, day-to-day challenges, current work-tasks / assignments, etc. ). Staff receive advance notice of when they should participate and specific questions to think about before this meeting. 3. A one-day workshop tailored to the specific work of the division. (The larger divisions have more than one workshop in order to keep the number of participants to around 20 in each specific workshop). The workshop methodology should be participatory and the agenda tailored to each division. Once the divisional level process is completed in each division, a town-hall meeting is organized for the whole department / organization, led by the head of the department / organization, to consolidate the learning and recommendations made. * Ensure gender mainstreaming in the processes of the Commission including planning, implementation and reporting; * Provide technical inputs to different departments including finance, research, investigation and documentation. * Enhance capacity of staff to ensure gender perspectives in planning and implementation. * Regular report writing and documentation capturing gender perspectives and achievements. * Co-ordinate and facilitate training on gender aspects of Commission’s working including mandate and responsibilities. * Attend, facilitate and/or monitor Commission events as required in relation to gender perspectives.

The Moon Is Down Essay Example For Students

The Moon Is Down Essay BASIC STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTIVE STUDIESEffective learning depends upon good study habits. Efficient study skills do not simply occur; they must first be learned and then applied consistently. Good study strategies include a preset time for study, a desirable place to study, and a well-designed study plan. A Time to studyAll of us think we have more things to do than we have time to do, and studying gets shortchanged. It is important to prepare a schedule of daily activities that includes time slots for doing the studying we have to do. Within each study slot, write in the specific study activity; for example, ?Read Unit 6 of accounting; do Problems 1-5.? Keep the schedule flexible so that it can be modified after you assess your success in meeting your study goals within each time slot. We will write a custom essay on The Moon Is Down specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now A Place to studyChoose the best place to study and use the same one every day. Doing so will help to put you in a study mood when you enter that place. According to Usova (1989, 37), ? The library is not always a desirable place to study.? Choose a place that has the fewest distractions such as people traffic, conversation, telephone, TV, and outside noises. Study is usually best done alone and in the absence of sights and sounds that distract the eye and ear. In your chosen quite place, force the mind to concentrate on the task at hand. A Plan for StudyResearch on the effects of specific study skills on student performance (Dansereau, 1985, 39) suggests that the following study tactics help to improve academic performance. 1. Skim a unit or a chapter, noting headings, topic sentences, key words, and definitions. This overview will clue you to what you are about to study. 2. As you read a unit or chapter, convert the headings into questions; then seek answers to those questions as you read. 3. If you own the book, use the color marking pens to highlight important ideas: headings, topic sentences, special terms, definitions, and supporting facts. If you dont own the book, make notes of these important ideas and facts. 4. After you have completed a unit or chapter, review the highlighted item (or your notes which contain them.) 5. Using the headings stated as questions, see if you can answer those questions based on your reading. 6. Test yourself to see if you can recall definitions of important terms and list of supporting facts or ideas. A high correlation exists between good study habits and good grades for the courses taken in school. REFERENCESDansereau, D. F. ?Learning Strategy Research.? Thinking and Learning Skills. Vol.1. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence E Erlbaum 1985, 21-40. Usova, George M. Efficient Study Strategies. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1989.

Validity of interview and personality assessment

Validity of interview and personality assessment Free Online Research Papers The management of human resources has become one of the major challenges of companies. The choice of appropriate selection methods is crucial, mainly as errors in the recruitment process are costly to the companies. The only way to be effective in managing human resources is to use selection methods whose reliability has been proven scientifically. It is not enough to feel a selection method is appropriate for her to be in reality. Certainly, we can consider this insight as a first indication, but not give it great importance, and be especially careful not to turn it into a true belief. In this perspective, the experimental verification of any assessment method is the only rational way that can confirm or deny the validity of an evaluation method. Given the impressive amount of selection methods, each of which claims to be the most effective it is not easy to make a choice. This is especially true; in general, HR professionals do not know the most relevant selection method that they can use. Must we choose, for example, an evaluation method based on its reputation or frequency of use? In this perspective, is a selection method which is known or widely used relevant? What are they really able to predict and to what extent? The purpose of this research is to advise on the effectiveness of selection interviews and personality assessment in decisions related to prediction of job performance. INTRODUCTION The main purpose of the selection process is to select the best applicant from the applicant pool that will perform well in the job. Thus predictability of job performance of the applicant is an essential component of selection thus various measurement tools are used to assess the possibilities of successful candidates, selection interviews, and personality assessment are amongst the widely used. But to safely use a performance predictor method, it is essential that it should have specific scientific references to guarantee maximum efficiency. These benchmarks will verify if the method used measures what it purports to measure. Also it is worthy to note that for selection interviews and personality assessment to be effective job performance predictors they should posses certain essential qualities, and should be used in respect of certain rules and under certain conditions. THE SCIENTIFIC REQUIREMENTS THAT GUARANTEE THE VALIDITY OF ASSESSMENT METHODS AS JOB PERFORMANCE PREDICTORS. As aforementioned it for selection any selection method to play its role of job performance predictor, there should be certain scientific benchmarks that verify if the measure actually measures what it purports to and the measure should be used under certain conditions following a given procedure. Essential qualities of job performance predictors The first criterion concerns the psychometric qualities which are three in number namely; reliability, utility or variability and validity. Reliability is the first of the qualities any job performance predictor should posses. Reliability is obtained when a procedure applied twice to the same subjects gives practically equivalent results.There are three methods to evaluate the reliability of a test, all three based on a correlation study. The first is the method of test-retest, the second is called the uniformity and the third is the method of equivalence The utility or variability of a method of assessment is an essential quality which will help to classify subjects thus discriminating. In other words, the method used should allow drawing a clear cut distinction between subjects that take the assessment on the measure it purports to measure. It is essential that the procedure is neither too difficult nor too easy and it is especially adapted to the population in question. Finally, validity is the last quality that must possess an assessment method. This will be valid if it really brings the expected information necessary for decision making. There are three types of validity: Content validity; which raises the question of whether, the content of the assessment method is the content area of this method is suppose to measure. -Construct validity that will legitimize the value of the tool, it will check if the tool actually develops measures for the phenomenon it is supposed to measure. Predictive validity assesses whether the test can predict behaviour in a work situation. The second criterion is sampling and calibration. Sampling is to determine a population sample on which the assessment method will be calibrated. This is in accordance with the objective of the test and candidates to which it will be applied, the selected sample will be representative of the population as a whole or a specified portion of the population according to age, sex, level of education or function. Benchmarking, meanwhile, is a process to have standards against which to compare issues between them. On the other hand, a reliable method of assessment which can be used by professional safely must necessarily provide reliable reference standards that can allow a single subject to be compared to a group. It is essential that the calibration groups are sufficiently important and most representative. Indeed, the validity of an interpretation depends exclusively on the quality of sampling and representativeness of standards. If these various requirements are not met, it is likely that the valuation method used does not have any guarantee for its user. Terms of use and conditions of administration of job performance predictors The relevance of a job performance predictor requires that we focus on the conditions of use and administration. With these conditions, two concepts are fundamental. The first concerns the standardization and the second concerns the actors who are responsible for their implementation. The standardization of a situation must allow comparison between subjects respecting a number of parameters such as: The psychological conditions of the candidates (reassure the candidates); Compliance level instructions (the transmission must be the same for each candidate); -Compliance with environmental conditions (the environment must be the same and most appropriate for each candidate), the full standardization of a situation does not exist and the only ambition is to approach it. It is not enough that the tools meet scientific requirements, nor that there exist standardized situations. It also requires that the assessment methods are chosen carefully and used in conditions where professionalism and ethics should prevail. THE VALIDITY AND UTILITY OF THE SELECTION INTERVIEW AND PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT This section is devoted to the level of validity of the main methods of assessment used in a context of professional prognosis. These data are derived from a synthesis of scientific literature on the subject. The selection interview The interview as a job performance predictor has always occupied the first place. But according to numerous studies, it is not a technique as reliable as one might think. However, the interview as a job performance predictor tool is absolutely essential but it might be wiser to give it less weight in decision making. The majority of work indicates that the traditional interview (unstructured, semi-structured interview and direct interviews) has low reliability, poor validity and unlike structured and situational interviews, which are conceived after propal job analysis have stronger reliability and validity. The low relevance of the traditional interview is simple to understand and, for a number of reasons. On the one hand, the lack of interview guide contributes to increase the difficulty of asking the same questions to each candidate. On the other hand, the situations are not standardized and therefore it is quite possible that the change of environment in which each candidate takes the interview, may distort the content of the interview. In addition, to the contrast effect do not forget that in reality, consultants or hiring managers rarely perform interviews in a single day. According to multiple studies, it appears that there is a contrast effect that indicates at least part of the assessment of the interviewee would be due to the quality of interviewees who immediately proceeded. What may seem surprising is the preponderance of traditional interview as a job performance predictor and selection method while its reliability is low. Despite this finding, the aim is not to abandon maintenance on the contrary, but make sure to increase its reliability and validity. By conducting a job analysis of the position in order to develop a guide that might help to ask only questions related to the position vacant. The reliability of the interview will be even better. The validity can be improved by training the interviewers through seminars, on interview techniques. Knowing the shortcomings of an interview, but also be able to better combat them. Personality assessment Personality assessment includes all tests using the cognitive and affective aspects of personality. There are two types of personality assessments used in selection: the personality questionnaires and projective tests. While personality tests and projective techniques assess personality, these two methods are fundamentally different. Thus, if the projective tests part of a comprehensive approach to personality, personality tests are part of a much more analytical approach, which decomposes the personality traits such as Extraversion, Agreeableness, Emotional Stability, Conscientiousness, and Openness to Experience which is a five factor model widely accepted taxonomy of personality(Rothstein Goffin,2006). Murphy (2000) has provided an analysis of the key issues to consider justifying making inferences from meta-analyses for research or personnel selection. These issues are (a) the quality of the data base and the quality of the primary studies it contains; (b) whether the studies included in the meta-analysis are representative of the population of potential applications of the predictor; (c) whether a particular test being considered for use is a member of the population of instruments examined in the meta-analysis; and (d) whether the situation intended for use is similar to the situations sampled in the meta-analysis Barrick and Mount found that the estimated true correlation between FFM dimensions of personality and performance across both occupational groups and criterion types ranged from .04 for Openness to Experience to .22 for Conscientiousness. Although correlations in this range may seem relatively modest, nevertheless these results provided a more optimistic view of the potential of personality for predicting job performance and this study had an enormous impact on researchers and practitioners (Mount Barrick,1998; Murphy,1997, 2000). In addition, there is a continuing debate on whether or not such â€Å"broad† personality dimensions are more or less effective than narrow (i.e., specific traits) personality measures for predicting job performance (see below for a review of this ongoing debate). Once again, it is not possible to review in this context all the controversies and debate surrounding how well the FFM represents the structure of personality. However, for researchers and practitioners interested in the use of personality measures in personnel selection, it is important to recognize that there is more to personality than the FFM. The choice of personality measure to use in a selection context should consider a number of factors, not the least of which is the development of a predictive hypothesis on the relations expected between the personality measure and the performance criterion of interest (Rothstein Jelley, 2003). Two other issues made salient by the contribution of meta-analytic studies to understanding personality–job performance research concern the importance of acknowledging the bidirectional nature of much more potential personality – job performance relations, and appreciating the potential role of moderators between personality and performance criteria. The projective methods based on the notion of perceptual mechanism and consist of a set of tests that will help from a more or less structured material an emotional release, a projection of the personality of the subject in the test. These techniques allow a holistic evaluation i.e. the overall personality, which is regarded as a dynamic evolving. Mastery of these methods requires a long training which usually lasts several years after a complete course in psychology In summary, despite the controversy surrounding the meta-analysis and the FFM, the weight of the meta-analysis evidence clearly leads to the conclusion that the measures of personality may be a significant contributor to the prediction of job performance. The impact of these meta-analysis has opposed the earlier findings of Guion and Gottier (1965) and put the personality back into research and practice. In the decade or more since these meta-analysis began to be published research of personality and job performance has continued, creating a wealth of understanding and implications for the use of personality measures in personnel selection. We review the important future trends in this research, with particular emphasis on implications for research and practice in human resource management. Although criticism of the FFM continues, many researchers have accepted it as a reasonable taxonomy of personality characteristics and moved beyond the basic question of whether personality predicts job performance to examine more specific applications (Rothstein Jelley, 2003). Simmering, Colquitt, Noe, and Porter (2003) determined that Conscientiousness was positively related to employee development, but only when employees felt that the degree of autonomy in their jobs did not fit their needs. The importance of a confirmatory research strategy was reinforced by Nikolaou (2003) who reported that although FFM dimensions were not generally related to overall job performance, Agreeableness were related to performance involving interpersonal skills. Hochwarter, Witt, and Kacmar (2000) determined that Conscientiousness was related to performance when employees perceived high levels of organizational politics, but no relations were found among employees perceiving low levels of organizational politics. Witt, 2002), Extraversion was related to job performance when employees were also high in Conscientiousness, but with employees low in Conscientiousness, Extraversion was negatively related to performance. As Rothstein and Jelly (2003) have argued, personality measures are relatively more situationally specific, compared with a measure of general mental ability. This makes the use of validity generalization principles to justify the use of a personality measure in selection more challenging because there may be numerous situational moderators as the above research illustrates. For human resource researchers and practitioners in personnel selection, the key is careful alignment of personality and performance criteria as well as consideration of other potential contextual factors related to the job or organization. Another potential interpretation of the relatively low correlations typically found between personality measures and job performance criteria, in addition to unknown or unmeasured moderator effects, is that personality may only have indirect effects on performance and that there may be stronger relations with mediator variables that in turn are more strongly related to job performance (Rothstein Jelley, 2003). The logic of this proposition is based on the generally accepted definition of personality as a predisposition to certain types of behavior. Accordingly, if this behavior could be measured directly, such measures may mediate relations between personality and job performance. Only a small number of research studies have been conducted over the past decade, but results support the existence of mediator effects. Collectively these studies illustrate once again that a confirmatory research strategy provides valuable insights to the nature of personality–job performance relations. Such strategies contribute to more comprehensive predictive models and better understanding of how personality affects job performance directly and indirectly. Although relatively few studies of mediator effects have been reported in the literature thus far, existing research indicates that both research and practice in personnel selection would benefit from such studies. Discovering indirect effects of personality on job performance through mediator variables may also help to understand why so many personality–job performance relations are situationally specific which in turn would lead to more effective personnel selection practices. Although repeated meta-analyses have supported the conclusion that personality predicts job performance (Barrick Mount,2003), from the perspective of human resource researchers and practitioners an important question remaining is to what degree is this prediction incremental in validity and value over other personnel selection techniques. Judge, Bono, Ilies, and Gerhardt (2002) determined that Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, and Conscientiousness were all related to leadership criteria (leader emergence and leader effectiveness) with Extraversion being the most consistent predictor across studies. Research Papers on Validity of interview and personality assessmentIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalResearch Process Part OneInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfStandardized TestingOpen Architechture a white paperThree Concepts of PsychodynamicThe Project Managment Office SystemThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseDefinition of Export Quotas

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Advanced Glycation End Products (AGE) for Diabetes

Advanced Glycation End Products (AGE) for Diabetes Diabetes mellitus is a syndrome which defined as a group of metabolic diseases characterized by hyperglycemia, that result from insufficient production of insulin, or body cells poorly respond to the insulin that is produced, or both. Insulin is a hormone produced in the pancreas and secreted in the blood to maintain blood glucose in the body through enables body cells to absorb glucose, to turn into energy. If the body cells enable to absorb the glucose, the glucose will accumulates in the blood (hyperglycemia), leading to many and different potential medical complications (Harmel Mathur, 2004). Diabetes have several categories but the majority of cases fall into two categories which are type 1 diabetes mellitus and type 2 diabetes mellitus. These two types are powerful and highly independent risk factors causing coronary artery disease, stroke, peripheral arterial disease and organ damage and dysfunction including eyes and nerves (Harmel Mathur, 2004). Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: Type 1 diabetes mellitus resulting from pancreas failure to produce insulin hormone. Person at risk of developing type 1 can be identified by doing serologic test markers that showing evidence of autoimmune destruction of beta cells (islet cells) of the pancreas which is responsible for insulin production. Type 1 diabetes is manifested in childhood and early adulthood, but can patient present at any age (Goroll Mulley, 2009). Type 2 diabetes mellitus: Patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus are prone with wide range of series complications. Type 2 is characterized by high blood glucose due to insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency. There are 20.8 million people in United State with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Type 2 diabetes traditionally is seen in elderly people. However it is diagnosed in obese children. Many studies shows that type 2 diabetes mellitus are associated with high calorie diet, physical inactivity and life style (Feinglos Bethel, 2008). Other Types of Diabetes: There are other types of diabetes but they are less common but patients who are underlying defect or disease process can be identified in a relatively specific manner. These types are Genetic defects of beta-cell function, Diseases of the exocrine pancreas e.g Fibrocalculous pancreatopathy, Endocrinopathies and cystic fibrosis and Uncommon forms of immune-mediated diabetes. Diabetes mellitus complications: Diabetic complications can be grouped into macrovascular and microvascular disease. Macrovascular diseases are result from atherosclerosis which develops in earlier age in patient with diabetes. There are several factors contribute to atherosclerosis such as lipidemia, hypertension, increased platelets adhesion and aggregation, elevated factor V, factor VII and fibrinogen concentration. Macrovascular diseases are seen in both type one and two of diabetes mellitus and they include coronary heart disease, Ischemic stroke and peripheral vascular disease (which can lead to ulcers, gangrene and amputation) (Winter Signorino, 2002). Whereas, Microvascular complications is seen in type one diabetes mellitus. Hyperglycemia damages the basement membrane of capillaries in the retina and glomerulars which leads to retinopathy and neuropathy. Microvascular diseases include neuropathy (nerve damage), nephropathy (kidney disease) and vision disorders (eg retinopathy, glaucoma, cataract and corneal disease). Furthermore there are other complications of diabetes include infections, metabolic difficulties, dental disease, autonomic neuropathy and pregnancy problems (Winter Signorino, 2002). Several clinical research show a strong relationship between hyperglacemia and diabetic microvascular complications in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. High glucose and insulin resistance play important roles in the pathogenesis of macrovascular complications due to atherosclerosis. Diabetes-specific microvascular disease in the retina, glomerulus and vasa nervorum has same pathophysiological features. Intracellular hyperglycaemia causes abnormalities in blood flow and increased vascular permeability which leads to decreased activity of vasodilators such as nitric oxide, increased activity of vasoconstrictors such as angiotensin II and endothelin-1, and elaboration of permeability factors such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) (Brownlee, 2001). There are several factors which contribute the formation of inflammation, atherosclerosis and diabetes mellitus complication. These factors are hyperglycemia, accumulation of advanced glycation endproducts, dyslipidemia and oxidative stress which lead to endothelial dysfunction resulting in thrombotic complications and cardiovascular (Altman, 2003). In type 1 diabetes mellitus, high blood glucose is usually as result of low level of insulin secretion whereas in type2 hyperglycemia is caused by resistance of insulin at the cellular level. Low insulin levels or insulin resistance enable the body to convert glucose into glycogen (a starch-as source of energy which stored in the liver). In type 1 diabetes, pancreatic beta cells are attacked by auto-immune which cause infiltration of inflammatory cells and increased expression and secretion of S100-calcium binding protein and high-mobility group protein 1 (HMGP1) through inflammatory cells which consequently lead to islet damage and increased blood glucose level, subsequent accumulation of AGE (Bierhaus Nawroth, 2009). Comparing to T1D, in type 2 diabetes mellitus, different metabolic disturbances stimulates inflammatory cells to secretes RAGE ligands, which cause low-grade inflammation and increased oxidative and carbonly stress, all these play roles in promoting AGE formation and RAGE expression in respective organs (Bierhaus Nawroth, 2009). Insulin resistance and Inflammation: In diabetic patients with hyperglycemia, cause by 1) impaired insulin secretion by the pancreatic ß-cells, 2) muscle insulin resistance, and 3) hepatic insulin resistance all play central roles in the development and progression of glucose intolerance. As I mention before, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is characterized by insulin resistance in liver and muscle and impaired insulin secretion. Also include deranged adipocyte metabolism and modified fat topography in the pathogenesis of glucose intolerance in T2DM. Fat cells are resistant to insulins antilipolytic effect, which result in increased plasma free fat acid levels. Long period of increasing plasma fat fee acid stimulates gluconeogenesis, promote hepatic and muscle insulin resistance, and impairs insulin secretion in genetically predisposed patients. These pathways of FFA-induced are known as lipotoxicity. Fat cells Dysfunction makes excessive amounts of insulin resistance-inducing, inflammatory, and atherosclerotic-provoking cytokines and fails to secrete normal level of insulin-sensitizing adipocytokines. Enlarged fat cells are insulin resistant and have minimized capacity to store fat. When storage capacity of adipocyte is exceeded, lipid overflows into muscle, liver, a nd perhaps ß-cells, resulting in muscle, hepatic insulin resistance and impaired insulin secretion. In type 2 diabetics, the ability of insulin to stop lipolysis and to decrease the plasma FFA levels is markedly impaired. It is clearly that chronic elevated levels of plasma free fat acid leads to insulin resistance in muscle and liver, and impair insulin secretion. In addition to FFA in plasma, increase stores of triglycerides in muscle and liver which correlate closely with the presence of insulin resistance in tissues. The triglycerides in liver and muscle are in a state of constant turnover, and the metabolites of intracellular triglyceride lipolysis impair action of insulin in liver and muscle (Bays et al, 2004). This pathway of events has been referred to as lipotoxicity . The accumulation of lipid in dipocytes leads to activate NADPH oxidase which increases the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The mechanisms increased production of cytokines including TNF-ÃŽ ±, IL-6 and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and reduce the production of adiponectin (Shoelson et al, 2006). Furthermore accumulation of lipid activates the protein response to increased ER stess in fat and liver. All these have accumulated to induce lipotoxicity as an important cause of ß-cell dysfunction (Bays et al, 2004). Receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE): RAGE is type I transmembrane receptor of the immunogloblin superfamily. It is a receptor for advanced glycation endproducts (AGE). It is about 45-KD a protein and it is consist of 403 amino acids in human, rate and mouse. Its extracellular region consists of one V-type (variable) immunoglobulin domina, which followed by two C-type (constant) immunoglobulin dominas (Basta, 2004). Its name drive from its ability to bind AGE and also it is known as AGER. It is located within the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class III region on chromosome 6, which contains numbers of genes involved predominantly in inflammatory and immune responses and several components of complements. Beside AGE, RAGE is able to bind several ligands therefore is called a pattern-recognition receptor. These ligands are high-mobility group protein 1 (HMGP1), S100-calicum binding protein (S100b) which is family of pro-inflammatory cytokines and it can be found in any inflammatory lesion and vascular walls of diabetics patients, amyloid-ß-protein and macrophage-1 glycoprotein (CD11B/CD18). RAGE plays role in diabetes and other metabolic disease. The interaction of RAGE and its ligands cause pro-inflammatory activation. It is involved in several diseases such as innate immune response, mediating immune and inflammatory response, cancer promoting and progressing and microvascular and mi crovascular diseases (Bierhaus Nawroth, 2009). Moreover, RAGE expression is increased in the cells of the vascular walls, at the site where AGEs and S100/calgranulins are accumulated, including endothelium vascular smooth muscle cells, glomerular mesangial cells and mononuclear phagocytes. This destrbution of RAGE and its ligands leads to increased cellular activation, causing further raised expression of the receptor (Basta et al, 2004). Recently the studies have been proved that RAGE and its ligands accumulate in diabetes and contribute to its pathology. Serum levels of S100A8/9 and S100A12 increased in type 2 diabetic patients. Also, evidence was provided by raised serum levels HMGB1 were linked to coronary artery disease in type 2 diabetes. In addition the studies which have been done in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats proved that diabetes increased amyloid-beta-peptide (1-40) levels in the brain. Furthermore, CML-modification of S100A8 and S100A9 are seen in inflammatory bowel disease and promote RAGE-mediated sustained inflammatory. Moreover, Carboxylated N-glycans on RAGE eases binding of HMGB and mediates ligation of S100A8/A9 to subpopulation of RAGE on colon cancer cells (Bierhaus Nawroth, 2009). Advanced Glycation End products (AGE) and its biochemical mechanism production: There are various pathways involved in stimulation of atherosclerosis in diabetes mellitus. However the most important one is formation and deposition of AGEs through nonenzymetic reaction between extracellular protein and glucose and it accumulates within cells of the vascular walls, in the extracellular space, kidney, nerves and retina (Basta et al, 2004). Possible mechanism of AGEs formation arise from intracellular auto-oxidation of glucose to glyoxal, decompounding of the Amadori product (glucose-derived 1-amino 1-deoxyfructose lysine adducts) to 3-deoxyglucosone and fragmentation of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate to methylglyoxal. These reactive intracellular dicarbonyls (glyoxal, methylglyoxal and 3-deoxyglucosone) which can react with amino groups of intracellular and extracellular proteins to form AGEs (pyrraline, pentosidine, CML, crossline) (Balasubramanyam et al, 2002). Several experimental studies evidenced that advanced glycation end products can alter vascular wall homeostasis in atherogenic through different ways which are: AGEs and mononuclear phagocytes Interaction: The binding of AGEs with mononuclear phagocytes MPs induces the activation of platelet-derived growth factor, insulin-like growth factor-1, and pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1ß and TNF-ÃŽ ±. Furthermore the interaction of AGEs with its receptor (RAGE) in the mononuclear phagocytes promotes cell migration (chemotaxis) (Basta et al, 2004). AGEs and vascular smooth muscle cells Interaction: Interaction of AGE with smooth muscle cells (SMCs) exhibits the proliferative activity and production of fibronectin. SMC growth are indirectly mediate by cytokines or growth factors which induced by AGEs in the MPs. Transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß) act as an intermediate factor in AGE-induced fibronectin formation by SMC(Basta et al, 2004). AGEs with vascular endothelium Interactions: alterations of vascular permeability and of adhesive properties As result its unique position and numerous properties, the vascular endothelium has important role in the regulation of extracellular permeability, the maintenance of blood fluidity, metabolism of hormones and vasoactive mediators and the regulation of vascular growth and tone. The endothelium is exposed to AGEs located on circulating proteins and cells (such as, diabetic RBCs), also those found in the underlying subendothelial matrix. Receptors for AGEs present on the endothelial cell surface, and mediate both the uptake and AGEs transcytosis, and the internal signal transduction. AGE-RAGE interaction leads to alteration of barrier function and an increased permeability of endothelial cells interact with AGEs and increased migrate of macromolecules through the endothelial monolayer. The increase in permeability is associated by alterations of the physical integrity of the endothelium, as shown by the destruction of structures and alterations of cellular morphology (Basta et al, 2004 ). Also, it has been proved that AGEs cause alterations of endothelial anti-hemostatic functions in vitro, through a reduction of thrombomodulin expression and accompanied with induction of tissue factor expression. The promoting of tissue factor and the decreasing in thrombomodulin activity change the dynamic endothelial features with regard to hemostasis from those of an anticoagulant to those of a procoagulant surface (Basta et al, 2004). Intraction of AGEs with endothelial RAGE also causes the depletion of cellular antioxidant defense mechanisms (such as glutathione, vitamin C) and the generation of reactive oxygen species. As a result of the increased cellular oxidative stress, NF-ÃŽ ºB activation occurs, thus inducing the expression of NF-ÃŽ ºB-regulated genes including, in addition to the procoagulant tissue factor, adhesion molecules, such as E-selectin, intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and vascular adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1); this past may prime diabetic vasculature towards enhanced interaction with circulating monocytes. Furthermore, the incubation of endothelial cells with EN-RAGE or S100B results in VCAM-1 induction, in a RAGE-dependent manner, as sustained by the inhibitory effect of anti-RAGE IgG or soluble RAGE (Basta et al, 2004). Alterations of endothelium-dependent vasodilatation AGEs linked to the vascular matrix may quench bioavailability of nitric oxide (NO), which is an important regulator of vascular tone inducing smooth muscle cell relaxation. Studies provided that, AGE inhibits NO activity, when it added to NO in vitro. Studies on animal exterminate induced diabetes show that an alteration of endothelium-dependent dilatation occurs in short period, within 2 months, from diabetes induction. A direct reaction between NO radical and other free radicals which are formed during the reactions of AGEs assumable leads to inactivation of NO. In parallel, advanced glyaction end products promote the expression of the potent vasoconstrictor endothelin-1 changing endothelial function towards vasoconstriction (Basta et al, 2004).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  These four mechanisms promote and alter vascular wall homeostasis. When mononuclear phagocytes migrate to the site of immobilized AGEs in the tissue, their migrations allow them to interact with AGE -modified surface and become activated. This mechanism cause attracting and retaining MPs in tissue where AGEs deposit. Migration and activation of MPs and T cells (inflammatory cells) promote and cause chronic vascular inflammation through alter vessel wall (Basta et al, 2004). Promotion of atherogenesis pathways by AGEs: AGEs are most important factors in endothelial dysfunction in diabetic patients through binding its receptor (RAGE). Advanced Glycation Endproducts stimulate the expression of proinflammatory cells and molecules (Altman, 2003). AGEs can be seriously deleterious to the function of blood vessel walls in various ways. First it causes blood vessel dysfunction through cross bridges among vessel macromolecules. Secondly of damage is that accumulation of AGEs lead circulating blood cells to adhere to the vascular walls which promote atherosclerosis. Third way is through binding different receptors which have been recognized on various cell types such as macrophages, endothelial cells, and smooth muscle cells, renal and neuronal cells (Basta et al, 2004). Hyperglycaemia Mechanisms-caused damage: Hyperglycemia diverse microvascular and macrovascular complications in diabetic patients through several mechanisms such as increased formation and accumlation of advanced glycation end-product (AGE); activation of protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms; and increased generation of reactive oxygen species (Bonke et al,2008) Increased production advanced glycation end-products AGE promote atherogenesis pathway through accumulation of AGEs and AGEs ligation to RAGE on endothelial cells and macrophages induce inflammation through activating pro-inflammatory cytokines including TNF-ÃŽ ±, 1L-6 a L-1ß, induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and through increased oxidative stress which lead to degradation of IKBs (IKBs is normally bound to NF-KB to prevent translocation of NF-KB to nucleus). ROS activates NF-KB which results in translocation of NF-KB to nucleus. Activation of NF-KB cause pathological change of gene expression which is highly related to inflammation, immunity and atherosclerosis, increased expression of inflammatory mediators which lead to insulin resistance and increased RAGE expression as well (Basta et al, 2004). Mechanisms by which intracellular production of advanced glycation end-product (AGE) precursors damages vascular cells. Cellular functions are altered by dicarbonyl advanced glycation end products. Alteration of extracellular matrix proteins results in abnormal interactions with other matrix proteins and with integrins. Alteration of plasma proteins by AGE precursors generate ligands that bind to AGE receptors, inducing conversion of gene expression in endothelial cells, mesangial cells and macrophages. Activation of protein kinase C: The protein kinace C (PKC) family compromises at least eleven isoforms, nine are induced by the lipid second messenger diacylglycerol (DAG). Altered DAG-PKC pathway play an important role in diabetic complications. Intracellular hyperglycaemia raises the amount of DAG which activate PKC in cultured vascular cells and in the retina and renal glomeruli of diabetic animals. Hyperglycaemia may also activate PKC isoforms indirectly by AGEs bind receptors and increased activity of the polyol pathway, possibly through increased reactive oxygen species (ROS). AGE stimulated diacylglycerol (DAG) and activate protein kinase C (PKC) in VSMC. PKC is one of important signal transduction elements involved with multiple cell response. In early studies of diabetes, retinal and renal blood flow abnormalities are due to activation of PKC-ß isoforms perhaps through depressing nitric oxide production or increasing endothelin-1 activity. Abnormal activation of protein kinase C has several pathogenic c onsequences: It leads to decreased production of nitric oxide in smooth muscle cells and glomerular mesangial cells that is induced by hyperglycemia (Brownlee, 2001). Activation of PKC causes inhibition of insulin-stimulated expression of mRNA for endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) in cultured endothelial cells. Hyperglycaemia activates PKC to increased endothelin-1, permeability of endothelia cells and increased expression of the vascular permeability angiogenesis factor (VEGF) in smooth muscle cells (Brownlee, 2001). Increased generation of reactive oxygen species: Increased generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is another possible pathways of diabetes complications especially nephropathy complication. Production of Reactive oxygen species can be result from the activation of various enzymes, including NADPH oxidase, nitric oxide (NO) synthase, and myeloperoxidase, with arising evidence that NADPH oxidase is the major cytosolic source of ROS generation in diabetes. NADPH has homologues that are present within the kidney, namely nox-3, seen in fetal kidney, and nox-4, which is predominately expressed in the renal cortex. AGE bind RAGE induces signal transduction and activate NADPH oxidase in endothelial cells. The interaction between AGE-RAGE enhances production of the cytokine vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), which is directly induced by NADPH oxidase and is associated with the pathogenesis of albuminuria in diabetes (Bonke et al, 2008). Diabetes mellitus control and treatment: Both type 1 and 2 diabetes mellitus are characterized by elevated blood glucose level due to insufficiency of insulin level. Therefore, diabetes patients need to reduce blood glucose level through healthy diet, drugs such as (hypoglycemic tablets and anti-atherosclerosis drugs), insulin injection and regular physical exercise. Healthy Diet: In general, healthy diet for diabetes patients should include: limit fats (especially saturated fats and trans-fat acid), proteins and cholesterol. Also, patient should consume a lot of fiber and vegetables. Patients with insulin-producing or insulin synthesis treatment should monitor their blood glucose level to avoid hyperglycemia. For example, adults and teenager patients should maintain their blood glucose level between 80-120 mg/dl, and 100-200 mg/dl for children under 12 year old. Type 1 diabetes patients should test their blood glucose level four to more per day. However, in type 2 diabetes, patients recommend to measure blood glucose level 1 to 2 times daily, because glucose level in type 2 diabetes is more stable than in type 1. Such important tests are important during diet plans and treatment. For example, glycosylated hemoglobin test (HbA1 c) is an indicator for carbohydrate level. Micro and macroalbuminuria indicates of the proteinuria and renal function, for instance if the teat showed high level of proteinuria then the patient need to lowering protein intake (Flaws et al, 2002). Exercise: Physical exercise is important to manage diabetes complications. Regular exercise improves the status of both type 1 and 2 diabetes through transporting sugar to muscles, improving blood circulation, and increasing insulin receptors. Exercise has specific effects on diabetes patients include: reducing blood glucose level during and after exercise, increased insulin sensitivity, reduced triglyceride level and increased good cholesterol (HDL) (Flaws et al, 2002). However, diabetes patients may have several risks associated with exercise which include: hypoglycemia if patient under treatment with hyperglycemia agents, hyperglycemia and ketosis in insulin-deficient patients, and exacerbation of cardiovascular disease. Therefore, patients who are over 30 year old should be examined before doing physical exercise. These examinations include: cardiovascular exams such as blood pressure, blood lipid and ECG, and neurological evaluation such as eye exam (Flaws et al, 2002). Anti-inflammatory drugs Various drugs in recent clinical practice have been used as anti-inflammatory agents such as thiazolidinedione (TZD) class of PPARÃŽ ³ agonists and members of statin class of HMG CoA reductase inhibitors. Both of them have importane anti-inflammatory properities and both have action on glucose homeostasis and cholesterol redusing (Shoelson et al, 2006). TZDs are used to induced insulin sensivity and decresed hyperglicemia in patient with type 2 diabetes mellitus. TZDs drugs inculde pioglitazone, rosiglitazone and troglitazone. The role of TZDs is through binding and activiting PPARÃŽ ³ to induce a number of gene expression products in a dipocyte. TZDs action are attributed to fatty acid in the a dipose tissue. TZD decreases circulating free faty acid and keep faty acid out of musle and liver because accumalte of fatty acide in these tissue lead to insulin resistance. In addition, PPARÃŽ ³ is not only present in dipocyte but also in it is expressed in macrophages and other immune cells response, hepatocyte, endothelial cells and vascular smooth mucsle cells (VSMC). TZD play role in reduce the expression of targets gene for cytokines, growth factors, proliferation and migration of cells, and cell cycle progression (Shoelson et al, 2006). Rosigliatozone: Rosigliatozone decreses the inflammatory markers such as serum C-reactive protein, metalloproteinase-9, white blood cell, tumer necrosis factor-ÃŽ ± and serum amyloid-A in type two diabetes mellitus (Altman, 2003). Group of studies done on Diabetes Rodents: The recent research has demonstrated that rosiglitizone, a PPARÃŽ ³ agonist, attenuates diabetes associated atherosclorosis. The reaserch has studied the direct antiathersclosis effects of PPARÃŽ ³ afer long beriod of therapy in an experiment of insulin deficiency. This study show that rosiglitezone has no effect on glucose level in both control or diabetes mice. However, rosiglitizone , PPARÃŽ ³ (acting as insulin sinstiser) significally decresed plasma insulin level in control mice (Calkin et al, 2005). In addition to Calkin study and his collegous, another study shows that rosiglitazone increase the insulin content and iselt cells number and total mass of pancreas in diabetes rats. However, it is unknown if this is adirect effect of rsiglitazone by activation of PPARÃŽ ³ mediated pathway in islets or indirect effect of normalizing the hyperglicemia (Sanchez et al, 2002). Increaesd secration rate of proinsulin relative to insulin is one oa acommon feature in type 2 diabetes mellitus. The normal range of proinsulin in normal subjects is about 2 to 4% of the total amount of insulin and in type 2 diabetes proinsulin rate is about 15%. Curently the studies has been demonstrated that rosiglitazone in type 2 diabetes decrease proinsulin secretion. Proinsulin has been associated with activity of carboxypeptidase E. Fricker and collegous have evidenced that carboxypeptidase are present in secretory pathway and participate in peptide processing. CarboxypeptidaseB has similler feature as carboxypeptidaseE but the precursor sequence of carboxypeptidaseB has been seen in an adult mouse islet cells. Thus suggest that rosiglitazone may has primery effect on increasing the expression of carboxypeptidaseB precursor protein resulting in increse proinsulin to insulin conversion (Sanchez et al, 2002). Further more, rosiglitizone did not affect fasting insluin level in diabetic mice due to streptozotocin which induce insulin insufficency. Also, another group of study has curently demonstrated that short period of treatment with rosiglitizone decreased plaque area in diabetic mice but had no determination if effects seen were linked to insulin sensitization (Calkin et al, 2005). More current sutdies have evedanced that rosiglitezone treatment in diabetes mice reduce gene expression of the NF-KB subunit p65. Further study has shown that rosiglitizone has no direct effect o glucose-induce upregulation of oxidative stress. Same study had investigated RAGE expression acording to preveious finding that first of all, RAGE expression increse oxidative stress and secondly rosiglitezone which used in culture media alter RAGE expression. The study had shown, the expression of RAGE gene wasnt altered by rosiglitizone (Calkin et al, 2005). Some study showed no significant alteretion in gene expression after TZDs treatment. This is because of almost studies were not preformed in human adipose tissue in vivo but they used adipose tissue of rodents and adipocyte cell line. Actually under such study we should consider about some facts that, for example rosiglitazone dose which used in rodents study (10 mg/kg) is higher than human dose about 100-fold. furthermore, TZD may has an action on gene expressed in rodents but it is not necessarily to has same action on human gene. For example carbonic anhydrase 3 protein raised 2-fold after treated the mice with rosiglitazone, however there was no increasing in carbonic anhydrase 3 mRNA in human adipocyte. Although there were similarities in the action of TZD-induced insulin sensitivity, there may be TZD action has different mechanisms on experimental models and human (Kolak et al,2007). Therfore, Im going to discuss about the studies which have been done on human adipose tissue and there findings. Group of studies done in human patient with type 2 diabetes: Overactivity of ubiquitin-proteasome system is associated with the inflammation and atherosclerotic plaques in type 2 diabetes. Study by Marfella and his colegous on human diabetes patients has been shown that the PPAR-ÃŽ ³ agonist rosiglitazone reduce ubiquitin-proteasome activity and thuss prevent plaque progression to unstable phenotype in diabetes individulas (Marfella et al, 2006). Also, same study shows, the production of O2- by monocytes is reduced after rosiglitazone treatment. Thus proteasome reduction is induced by inhibition of oxidative stress and polyubiquitination. As oxidative stress induce insulin resistence through NF-kB activation, rosiglitazone enhance insulin sensivity and plaque stability in diabetes patien through reducing oxidative stress and ubiquitin-proteasome activity. Further possibility that, NF-KB activation is inhibited by rosiglitazone through a PPAR-ÃŽ ³ independent pathway. PPAR-ÃŽ ³ agonist inhibits NF-KB translocation and subsequent DNA binding through inhibits immune response which induce degradation of IKBs (Marfella et al, 2006). Rosiglitazone have significant effects on metabolism of faty acid and lowering circuliting non-esterified fatty acid. Therfore rosiglitazone prevent islet cells through reducing fatty acid exposure (Sanchez et al, 2002) Kolak and his colleagues investigated the gene of expression in human adipose tissue in vivo in type two diabetes mellitus, befor and after tratment with rosigliatozone and metformin. Reosigliatozone modulates expression of gene which involved in free faty acid synthesis and storage, protein strcture, inflammatory cells inculde macrophage and gene associated in glucose transport and insulin sensivity. Whereas metformin has no effect on these gene (Kolak et al, 2007). TZD decrease the expression of RAGE endothelial protien. From preveious finding, TNF-ÃŽ ± increase the expression of RAGE on endothelial cells, so

War from Myceneans to Rome Essay -- essays research papers

WAR FROM MYCENEANS TO ROME The modern day soldier did not arrive at the current level of training methods overnight. Throughout history warfare techniques and strategies have evolved from the earliest primitive battles to the latest technologies. The only way to learn about war is to study the past engagements and lessons learned. There are nine principles of war as follows: Objective, Offensive, Mass, Economy of force, Maneuver, Unity of command, Security, Surprise, and Simplicity. These are the areas of study in order to gain a better understanding of what to do and what to avoid during any engagement.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The battles from yesterday differ from those in recent years and today, because the more primitive cultures fought under their leader for food, territory, or the domination of another group. Today’s motives are based more on economic, political, or social reasons regarded as appropriate by a group of individuals instead of the thoughts or intentions of one man.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mainland Greece is the first study of warfare in the selected readings and by 1600 B.C. a civilization emerged from the Hellas culture and the Minoan culture. This group, known as the Myceneans, fought using chariots and armor made of bronze. By the eighth century B.C., the Myceneans art of war consisted of the phalanx. The phalanx was a solid rectangle of infantrymen carrying armor and spears eight deep. When an army approached another army the phalanxes of both sides would come head to head. The soldiers, who were normally citizens not professional soldiers, would find themselves in the midst of blood and sweat pouring out of the bodies surrounding them from the hand to hand combat. The only way of victory was to hold the lines strong and fight until the other side fled. The problems with this type of formation was that there was no overall leadership within the phalanx, no reserve was established to outflank the opposing army, and there was no way to pursue the fleeing enemy, left them capable to heal and fight another day.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The technique of phalanx had not changed for some time and the Greek warfare stayed the same due to no major opposition force that used different techniques against Greek system. The phalanx was also used because it was a proven technique that had been tested and used successfully. O... ...diterranean, Hannibal moved to engage the Romans and almost conquered them at Cannae (216 B.C.), where the largest Roman army was surrounded, enveloped, and destroyed. The Romans needed military leadership to outwit Hannibal and found it in Scipio.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Scipio made the maniples stronger than ever and increased the amount of horsemen in the cavalry to solve the problem that the Romans had against Hannibal. By using adapting techniques to envelop and control sea power, Scipio was able to defeat Carthage at the battle of Zama (202 B.C.), and thus the Romans were ready to expand their empire from Spain to Asia Minor and from Britain to Northern Africa.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   SOURCES USED Preston, Richard A., Alex Roland, and Sydney F. Wise. Men In Arms: A History of Warfare and its interrelationships With Western Society. (Belmont, California:Wadsworth/ Thomson Learning, 2001). Chap 1-3 Warry, John. Warfare in the Classical World: An Illustrated Encyclopedia of Weapons, Warriors, and Warfare in the Ancient Civilisations of Greece and Rome. (Norman, Oklahoma:University of Oklahoma Press, 1995). Chap 1-13

Once Bitten Twice Shy

Once bitten twice shy is a great, and fairly common saying. It is an idiom that means if somebody is said to be once bitten twice shy, it means that a person who has been hurt, or who has had something happen to them that was life changing in a not so desirable way then they will be far more careful the next time around. I think everyone has experienced situations such as this. Whether it be a deal you made where you ended up getting cheated out of some money, or a time when you got your heart broken by someone you thought would never hurt you.Either way it happens and makes a person leery of trusting others for a long while, if ever again. As a small business owner I have experienced many situations in which I was the target of somebody trying to pull the wool over my eyes, and/or screw me out of some money. At one point in time a few years ago, I had a small crew of people working on a job for me in Rolla Mo. while myself and another crew member were working on a different job in S t. Robert.I trusted the crew members that I left alone without supervision because they were all hard and honest workers, at least I thought they were. I had been leaving this crew on the Rolla job for about two weeks with very little supervision from myself. The only time I really stopped by there was to drop off more material, and take a quick look around at the work they were doing and all was well. That is until I got a call one afternoon from the contractor that I was doing this job for.The call started with me getting an ass chewing like I had never had before, and caught me totally off guard. After some time on the phone with this man I kind of figured out what was going on. It seems one of my crew members that I had been leaving alone on the job for a while was planning to screw me over. They had been sabotaging my job in hopes that they would be able to show the contractor the shoddy work that was going on behind his back so that he would fire me and hopefully hire them to replace me.Well, luckily I had known the contractor for years and after some smooth talking I convinced him that I would finish the job personally and fire the member of my crew that caused these problems. So, the plan backfired for the sneaky crew member. Not only did they not get hired by the contractor, but they lost the steady job they already had. Even though this situation didn’t turn out all that badly for me, it still caused me some friction with the contractor, and caused me to never have the same level of trust in my employees ever again.

A Mount Saint Helens Story essays

A Mount Saint Helens Story essays I went to the mountain with the expectation of seeing firsthand, the explosive remains of a tragic, destructive, volcanic eruption. This turned out to be just the beginning of an extraordinary, educational experience that made me want to learn more. The 1980 eruption on Mount Saint Helens remains the most powerful and most documented explosion in U. S. history. When Mount Saint Helens erupted, 57 people lost their lives. Death was instantaneous for those close to the eruption; an entire family found still sitting in their car, a couple found in a tent with their arms around each other, and several other bodies were never located. Destruction was widespread; old-growth forests were leveled, floods raged, and ash circled the globe. The Cowlitz Indians that reside in the area call the mountain Lawetlia, or smoking mountain. An alpine lake with crystal clear water is at the mountains base. The Cowlitz Indians named it Spirit Lake, because they believe the region belongs to the dead. Certainly the Cowlitz Indians knew of the mountains previous eruption in1837. They knew to listen to the earth and at 8:32 AM on Sunday May 18, 1980, the rest of the world learned to listen, as the mountain came to life again. The eruption completely transformed the cone-shaped peak of Mount Saint Helens, melting city-sized glaciers in seconds, and destroying everything for 19 miles to the northwest. After months of rumblings, Mount Saint Helens has since settled into a slumber, though this may be a fitful sleep. In 1995, U.S. Geological Survey scientists released a study saying, Sufficient time has elapsed for the magma, the liquid and molten rock in the conduit beneath the dome to crystallize and form a plug. The pressure needed to expel the plug could produce an explosion similar in size to the 1980 eruption (Campbell and Barber. Th ...